PHANTOM TERROR

Zamoyski (Poland: A History, 2012, etc.) shows how the French Revolution instigated fear in the hearts of European governments, most of it unfounded and falsely propagated by undefined fears and self-perpetuating rumors.

The author examines how broadly European countries enacted reactionary and draconian laws meant to control the masses. Austrian Prime Minister Klemens von Metternich was a prime example, especially since it was he who encouraged the spread of false stories like that of the Comité Directeur—ostensibly a revolutionary group that was the driving force behind all the insurrections and demonstrations that occurred across Europe, even though it never existed and the demonstrations were caused by high bread prices and poor working conditions. “Nowhere was there any sign of anyone, let alone any body, directing anything,” writes the author. “There was no transnational cooperation.” The chaos immediately following the French Revolution was subdued by the ascent of Napoleon, who instituted central organs of control, while other countries relied on local governance. With the defeat of Napoleon, the “Holy Alliance” of Russia’s Alexander I, Austria’s Francis I and Prussia’s Frederick William III attempted to return to a social order based on throne and altar and eliminate the influence of the Enlightenment and the belief in popular sovereignty. All were irrationally aggressive, fearing a new revolution backed by the secret organizations of the Comité, Freemasons, Jacobins and Illuminati. That aggression took the form of spies and secret police in every country, most widely under Metternich. Though the French Revolution may have spread the idea of the “rights of man,” it also increased the fears and the power of those who repressed it.

Zamoyski provides perhaps too many examples of severe sentencing of innocents, but his point is important, and his book comprehensively examines the role of the powerful over the weak and the effects of governmental overreactions.